We're here to answer any questions you have about our services. Eyewitness testimony is usually a verbal account given by an individual who has experienced an event, typically of a crime. The use of eyewitness testimony has a profound and compelling effect on the outcome of a trial and conviction, and this is why an accurate eyewitness testimony is needed in order to gain justice. Info: 4730 words (19 pages) Essay Researchers have found that "more innocent citizens are wrongfully tried and convicted on the basis of eyewitness evidence in Great Britain In essence, the memory may fill in gaps where it fails to recall what may have happened [5] . Times, Sunday Times (2014) But the key piece of evidence is an eyewitness account of your seizure. This conformity can purposely invalidate information as the witness does not want to be isolated from the events that the other witness’s describe as having happened. This process of experiencing and filtering information is called acquisition. The occurrence of errors is very likely at any particular stage within the memory processing stages. We can handle a wide range of assignments, as we have worked for more than a decade and gained a great experience in the sphere of essay writing. help-with-school … The results show that witnesses can inaccurately estimate certain factors of an event. Though witness memory is quite often inaccurate in that they fail to distinguish the events that had occurred, quite often, the human memory can remember erroneous events and details that may be introduced by third party interference. Through the questioning process that witnesses must endure, witnesses can either be questioned on a one-to-one basis where the interviewer questions the witness independently or witnesses can be questioned as a group if the incident has been witnesses by multiple people. When the experiment was repeated a week later, the subjects who received the word ‘smashed’ were more likely to agree to the question asked “Did you see any broken glass?” even though there was no recollection of broken glass within the video. The research may also contain cultural and gender bias as it only tested for Caucasian males as the target. Memories are believed to be stored and processed within the hippocampus part of the brain where it goes through the multi-store model (Atkinson and Shiffrin, 1968). Eyewitness testimony is usually a verbal account given by an individual who has experienced an event, typically of a crime. This section of the essay aims to analyse and evaluate research conducted in relation to the techniques of retrieving information from eyewitnesses such as question wording or method of questioning. Noticias sobre cultura urbana, música y entretenimiento, tus artistas favoritos, las canciones de moda, videos e imágenes de los mejores momentos de la música y sus personajes In particular, group questioning which gives into reason the reliability of witness recollections as they may conform in order to fit each other’s interpretation of what happened. To export a reference to this article please select a referencing stye below: If you are the original writer of this essay and no longer wish to have your work published on UKEssays.com then please: Our academic writing and marking services can help you! Quite often, when the memory cannot recall the entire incident or situation, it may result in the unknown areas being replaced by events that may never have took place in reality but the mind may perceive as a potential occurrence and theref… When the information has been transferred into the short-term memory store, this is the store concerned with forgetting information and this information is ultimately lost entirely. In terms of the actual interviewing process, the use of leading questions should entirely be avoided unless the witness has mentioned specific events or descriptions which would not invalidate information as it has been confirmed by the witness. A possible reason for arousal, anxiety and violence distraction could be that a violent incident, with the use of weapons, draws the focus of the witness’s attention away from who is causing this anxiety, which results in little or no processing of other information. So, in essence when a person is moderately aroused, the information is encoded best as opposed to extreme arousal or stress where the information is lost or encoded insufficiently. The results are highly significant, p<0.005 according to analysis by variance of the data. Under such fallibility, it can be questioned if eyewitness testimony should be relied on at all. Although this is so, this case study has only looked at male soldiers, thus when applied to the general population, it lacks ecological validity. Disclaimer: This is an example of a student written essay.Click here for sample essays written by our professional writers. ... the credibility of the eyewitness’s account of events are rarely taken into consideration. Overall analysis criticised the low ecological validity of controlled experiments but also supported the high level of validity that comes with it as it essentially provides a cause and effect relationship between specific variables tested. This is considered one of the key factors in which juries do consider eyewitness testimony accounts as a vital piece of evidence. After watching the video, participants had to give an account of what they had just seen. Download file to see previous pages Eyewitness accounts are important especially where there is lack of any other type of evidence such as forensic. Human memory is described by cognitive psychologists Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) [2] as a three stage theory in which memory is modelled in, this memory stage model is called the ‘Multi-Store Model’. The first stage of the multi-store model, the sensory store, is where the information from the senses (iconic, echoic, tactile, olfactory and gustatory), is transferred into but this is only for a very short period of time. This conclusively makes their eyewitness account unreliable because they fail to remember any substantial amounts of information and detail of what happened and of the perpetrator. The attack lasted for thirty-four seconds but when interviewed later on, the average estimate of the duration of the event was eighty-one seconds, almost twice the actual time. Another event factor is the violence of the event. Download for offline reading, highlight, bookmark or take notes while you read Centuries of Genocide: Essays and Eyewitness Accounts, Edition 4. An Eyewitness Account of the Napoleonic War. Loftus and Palmer (1974 cited in Hill, 1998) carried out an experiment to investigate the effect of leading questions on the accuracy of participants in recalling a car crash. However when it is incorrect, eyewitness testimony can do severe damage. After comparing for and against the reliability of eyewitness accounts, an evaluation will be drawn over how eyewitness testimony can be improved to an extent where it can be further accurate. This essay may contain factual inaccuracies or out of date material. Therefore, any external information that the environment consists of is often very difficult for the human mind to assimilate and process; so people are selective about what information is to be retrieved and this is otherwise known as attention, where some information is assimilated while other pieces are ignored. Registered Data Controller No: Z1821391. Write a journal entry describing your observations. The use of leading questions and third party interference can decay any initial recollection of events that the eyewitness may have believed to have happened. However, its reliability is questioned in terms of validity and how much the witness is able to accurately recall all pieces of information especially having experienced high amounts of anxiety and stress. In this manner, results of case studies hold a higher level of reliability. Though conclusive to a certain extent, the experiment lacks ecological validity as the participants did not actually experience the event, merely perceive it but as it is a controlled environment, the reliability of the cause and effect factors is high. They were isolated with the exception of a telephone link. The issue of integrity when applying eyewitness testimony accounts is delegated to the jury, who are assigned the role of determining the judgement of whether the eyewitness statements are fallible or reliable [3] . All work is written to order. As this is a case study, it holds high ecological validity unlike laboratory experiments. Loftus found that there was a higher percentage of participants who recalled seeing a stop sign if the first question related to a stop sign than the control group, fifty-three percent and thirty-five percent respectively. Good Essays. Essays Galore. It has been argued that because testimonies are largely based on fallible memory which can be influenced by a variety of factors, it should not be depended upon. Stuck on writing Auschwitz A Doctor's Eyewitness Account Essay? The initial information retrieved by the senses is then transferred into the short term memory store; this is transferred through attention given to the information transferred from the senses involved. in darkness, low-lit room etc. The witness may re-interpret their witness statements to match what the media has claimed may have existed or happened. 13 participants were interviewed using Loftus and Palmer’s (1974 cited in Hill, 1998) technique in their recall four to five months after witnessing an attempted robbery in daylight where one individual was killed and another, seriously wounded. In conclusion, it was found that experiments regarding eyewitness testimony hold little evidence to support its reliability but there are also some findings that dispute this. This section of the essay will focus on the numerous researches that have been carried out to investigate the accuracy of this or the extent of the influence that may occur. Saunders et al believe that jurors tend to place too much faith in eyewitness testimonies; however the problem lies with whether eyewitness testimony is a reliable source of evidence to use [17] . Memory is an extremely fragile aspect of the human mind that can potentially be supplemented, altered and reconstructed by external stimuli that can question an event that may never have occurred. Eyewitness accounts are considered compelling evidence for persecution in criminal cases. Researchers have found that "more innocent citizens are wrongfully tried and convicted on the basis of eyewitness evidence in Great Britain. Though a large number of researches do not support the reliability of eyewitness testimony, there is also evidence to support it like Yuille and Cutshall’s (1986) case study. The distraction affects the witness’s attention due to the potential threat of violence. The results are highly significant as it was calculated using precise results with a specific variable tested. Free Eyewitness Essays and Papers. Thus, information is filtered through or selected by attention for further memory processing into the next type of memory store. Sigmund Freud (1920) suggested that memories can only be retrieved by encouraging remembering past episodes and re-instating these ‘past memories’ into their consciousness. Forty-eight subjects with equal number of men and women watched either one of two tapes. 1. Our academic experts are ready and waiting to assist with any writing project you may have. Although the results are significant, the study was conducted in a controlled environment which gives it little ecological validity. Despite several factors that can contribute to the inaccuracy of witness testimony, the reliability of its accuracy is still relatively high, based on the implicit “assumption that the human mind is a precise recorder and storer of events (Loftus and Ketcham, 1991). Contending the results of this experiment is Yuille and Cutshall’s (1986) case study of a real life event. Cognitive psychologist, Sigmund Freud believed that memories were allocated in the brain [12] . Eyewitness Testimony – Reliable or Unreliable For the final memory bank, the retrieval memory or long-term memory, we tend only to remember what we want to or what made an impression on us. Volume 36, No. A. Since eyewitness account is highly dependent upon the memory of an individual, his or her recollection of events is greatly affected by “age, health, personal bias and expectations, viewing conditions, perception problems, later discussions with other witnesses, [and] stress ” (Cline). McCloskey and Zaragaza (1985) also conducted experiments concerning the effect of misleading post event information on participants. This area of eyewitness psychology is known as weapon focus; unfortunately this distraction results in a very poor eyewitness testimony as the witness is unable to recall events and descriptions. Pros and Cons of Eyewitness Testimony To see is to believe. No plagiarism, guaranteed! Looking for a flexible role? It was found that regardless of gender, the level of recall is significantly lower for those who viewed the more violent tape. [9]. Other psychological research has demonstrated that the presence of a weapon also reduces the accuracy of eyewitness accounts. Subjects. After an event occurs, sometimes witnesses discuss what they saw with each other and the information that is exchanged can result in an enhancement of memory in the form of modification or addition. We're here to answer any questions you have about our services. Essay text: Before reading Auschwitz; A Doctor’s Eyewitness Account by Dr. Miklos Nyiszli, I myself did not grasp the concept of what in fact took place several years ago. Published: 3rd Jul 2017 in Please refer to an authoritative source if you require up-to-date information on any health or medical issue. From simple essay plans, through to full dissertations, you can guarantee we have a service perfectly matched to your needs. This rises the stress level of the crime victim and thus, they will only concentrate on a few features, mainly the weapon and will have trouble recollecting other factors such as the assailant’s features. The initial pioneer of evaluating eyewitness evidence, Elizabeth F. Loftus [26] highlights the flaws of eyewitness accounts and of the human memory. Conformity: Through the questioning process that witnesses must endure, group questioning in particular, gives into reason the reliability of witness recollections as they may conform in order to fit each other’s interpretation of what happened. This was done by focusing on the different factors that can affect human memory, and in relation, eyewitness testimony as it is fundamentally based on memory. There is where some information may be forgotten and the longer the time goes by the more details are lost. However when it is incorrect, eyewitness testimony can do severe damage. Though the memory of the witnesses may differ, depending on age and memory capacity, quite often the initial first few hours after the occurrence of an incident is vital in collecting as much valid information as possible. These elements include the effect of weapon focus on witness memory, how leading questions can manipulate witness statements and recollection of memory, reconstructive errors of memory and the application of psychological experiments when exploring the function of these elements on the human memory. It is inferred that this is due to the greater amount of stress that is produced in response to the violent event. You can directly state the point at the beginning or end of your essay, or you may leave it to the reader to infer. Please refer to an authoritative source if you require up-to-date information on any health or medical issue. We were supposed to observe someone in the lunchroom and take notes. After the film which lasted for less than a minute, participants were asked a series of ten questions. Schemas: The human mind has evolved its memory capacity and the ability to remember certain aspects by organising information into categories, otherwise known as schemas [8] . Also, in cases where little material evidence can be collected, eyewitnesses are the focus for reaching a verdict. The contention of this essay is to identify and evaluate the extent of accuracy of this claim by identifying and evaluating factors that affect memory and by reviewing experiments and case studies to reach a conclusion on this matter. This correlates with what a witness may assume a criminal or crime scene may look like and therefore use this to describe the suspected. We've received widespread press coverage since 2003, Your UKEssays purchase is secure and we're rated 4.4/5 on reviews.co.uk. The Multi-store model theory consists of the memory being divided into three stages, the first stage being the sensory store, the second stage is the short term memory (working memory) and the third being long term memory. This deterioration refers to the loss of stimulus information as a result of passed time. During an event, stress is a witness factor that should be taken into account. Additionally, accounts of those who were more distressed had a higher accuracy level. Events during these three processes may affect the quality of the eyewitness testimony. Study for free with our range of university lectures! However, the use of eyewitness accounts seems to create a lot of doubt in whether it is a reliable source of evidence to be used because its accuracy is questioned based on interpretation. In English class, yesterday, we were given an assignment. Schemas help organise memories that can consist of familiar people, objects and situations and allow people to understand and act appropriately to whatever is encountered. While this is so, the participants did not experience the event and thus their response may be different to an actual witness which means that the experiment lacks ecological validity. Estimating factors such as time, speed or distance is often asked of eyewitnesses. The results of this experiment can be applied to eye-witness testimony where witnesses may be mislead in their testimony as their memory might be compromised by the introduction of conflicting information. The Yerkes-Dodson theory [23] demonstrates that if a witness observes a crime that is substantially violent and/or makes the witness experience high levels of fear and anxiety, they are less likely to remember any significant levels of information because of the extreme stress which results in encoding of information inaccurate. This is significant in most cases, especially for cases of self-defense where the time between the attack and the retaliation is very significant in the categorization of the action. If you need assistance with writing your essay, our professional essay writing service is here to help! Thus, it was concluded that it is reliable only to a small extent though it can be highly accurate under certain conditions. Eyewitness Account Essay, elementary critical thinking, my class room essay for class 3 in english, one idea essay simon ielts writing Stern and Dunning, 1994 [10] quoted that eyewitness testimony is perhaps ‘the most compelling types of evidence presented to police investigations and criminal trials’. The malleability of eyewitness accounts demonstrates the excessive inaccuracy of it being used as a vital evidential piece in the courts and criminal justice system. However, there may be a possibility that the eyewitness account is accurate but leading questions by the criminal investigation team may provoke the memory to be changed to fit the question or the most relevant and fitting answer [16] . Free resources to assist you with your university studies! Arousal, Anxiety and Violence Distraction: Quite often, cognitive psychologists have questioned the poor recall of eyewitness accounts is primarily a result of where their attention is focused upon. Many hypotheses have been established that suggest reasons for the valued use of eyewitness testimony. To further assess the accuracy of this study, an additional study that can be considered is Buckhout et al. This can be applied to eyewitnesses who experience stress. Line-ups or photo arrays are utilized as means of identification. Company Registration No: 4964706. 1441 Words; 6 Pages; Eyewitness Essay. Read this book using Google Play Books app on your PC, android, iOS devices. Eyewitness testimony will always remain a vital source of evidence but its use should be delicately considered to avoid any false information or invalid convictions. Eyewitness account essay example >>> click to order essay Can you use the same college essay twice I’m trying to describe myself in an essay this is my 2nd trial in writing i think my family tree is unique because i have a cross-cultural extended family. Marshall’s (1966, cited in Loftus, 1979) experiment tested subjects’ estimation of time. VAT Registration No: 842417633. It has been argued that because testimonies are largely based on fallible memory which can be … Experiments and case studies related to factors in three different memory stages were identified and evaluated. Rehearsal is the cycling of information through the memory, this rehearsal of memory can be carried out in two different methods. This shows that by mentioning an object, there is a higher chance of it being recalled. For example, teaching a child how to read a book at a particular age is episonic, knowing what a book is, is semantic and how to read the words in a book would be procedural. Leading questions [25] can quite often add new information that the witness may not have known about and will therefore mention ‘false’ information in order to fit their account with what is evidently known by the police. The fact that there was little difference between the two groups points to the idea that misleading post event information does not distort memory of an event. This section of the essay will evaluate the effect of these factors on the reliability of eyewitness testimony. *You can also browse our support articles here >. Subjects were shown a slideshow of a car at an intersection with either a “yield sign” or a “stop sign”. The method of questioning during the retrieval process plays an important role in the accuracy of eye-witness testimony as investigated by Lipton (1977, cited in Wells, 1978). By encouraging witnesses to reminisce about past episodes that have occurred within their lives, Freud insinuated that they could reinstate long-forgotten yet important memories from their past into their consciousness. Because retained information and thus, memory is being transferred between memory stores, it is possible that it can be influenced, enhanced or even distorted during or in between transfers. Eyewitness testimony is a legal term, it is a statement given under oath which police departments widely rely on. Apart from the media, other external influences may include other witness accounts of what happened and/or the type of environment that the situation may have occurred in, e.g. But the human memory has flaws within itself regardless of extra information that can falsify or invalidate the recollection of what occurred and why. In the violent version, one of the characters physically assaults another character. Weiten, W. (2005), Psychology: Themes and Variations, The United States of America, Thomson Learning Inc. Wells, G. L. (1978), Applied Eyewitness-Testimony Research: System Variables and Estimator Variables, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. Then, they were told that they were in danger to induce anxiety and were required to repair a broken radio by following a series of complicated instructions. Easterbrook (1959) found that under high stress, individuals tend to concentrate more on a few features of their environment and less attention to other features. This was done by identifying factors in three different processes stages. Taking into consideration the flaws in which eyewitness accounts may consist of, which effectively invalidates the testimony, these flaws can be avoided by both the eyewitness and the criminal justice system that use the accounts as a form of evidence. We've received widespread press coverage since 2003, Your UKEssays purchase is secure and we're rated 4.4/5 on reviews.co.uk. So in essence, there is no uncertain information but information that the mind has remembered and rehearsed within their memory and indicates a positive recollection of events. Atkinson, R. C. Shriffin, R. M. (1971), The Control Processes of Short-term Memory, Stanford, California, Stanford University, Easterbrook J. This involves the retrieval process of information from their long term memory store. Most importantly, the way in which witness accounts are handled is vital in establishing a valid eyewitness testimony with as much ‘truth’ as possible. Though eyewitness testimony has been proved accurate in a number of researches, the amount of investigations concluding on the fact that it is highly imperfect far outweighs it. A part of the experiment tested the memory of the students based on a series of seven questions on the customer. To export a reference to this article please select a referencing stye below: If you are the original writer of this essay and no longer wish to have your work published on UKEssays.com then please: Our academic writing and marking services can help you! It can be concluded that the use of eyewitness testimony will also be used as a vital source of evidence by the criminal justice system for years to come. Specific questions that can be used in the interviewing process may help the witness to run through their track of events which in some circumstances reveal any recollection of events without any external influence. Eye witness recall is something that happened, according to an eyewitness- basically a person who saw an incident or an event and taking it into account. On the other hand, interference which is the loss of old stimuli as a result of new information can also subsequently reduce the accuracy of eyewitness accounts. Eyewitness testimony has been a thriving aspect of the Criminal Justice System, an incredible amount of research into this element of cognitive psychology questions the reliability of people’s memory especially using it as evidence to determine the outcome of the trial and convictions. Half of the participants were asked about the stop sign in the first question while the other half were asked about the right turn. It is often used in court cases for the jury to better understand the facts from the eyes of a person who saw the actually event happen. This is a significant value as compared to other types of questioning such as open ended questions with eighty-three percent accuracy, leading questions with seventy-two percent accuracy and multiple choice questions with fifty-six percent accuracy. Its core purpose time goes by the various aspects that intercept with each other and hesitation!, eyewitness are prohibited to lie while under oath which police departments widely rely on may negatively their... Accounts, Edition 4 - Ebook written by Samuel Totten, William S. Parsons a... The non-violent version, the memory processing into the next type of questioning, leading questions Elizabeth. Students felt that AOC-BDL achieved its core purpose about ninety seconds it only tested for Caucasian as! The type of memory occurs be identical, speed or distance is often asked of eyewitnesses often of! Book using Google play Books app on your PC, android, iOS devices invalidate! Which lasted for less than a minute, participants were asked about the.! Or a “ yield sign ” or a “ yield sign ” or a stop. Additionally, accounts of those who viewed the pictures, which leads a... Criminal cases factors were then evaluated to weigh the impact that it is a case study conducted! Demonstrated that the high percentage of errors is very likely at any particular stage within memory. Stress that is produced in response to leading questions scene may look like and therefore use to. A second higher rate of inaccuracy processing information upon a human ’ attention! 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As memorising the picture Books app on your PC, android, iOS devices itself regardless of extra information can. From Veritas prep and convicted on the speed estimates knowledge of all, the reliability of eyewitness should... Information deposited in the non-violent version, the point of the tapes were manipulated to be.... Distressed had a capacity of about ninety seconds the Short-term and Long-term memory store some questions can be... Which they had just seen investigating the consequences of particular leading questions was Elizabeth F. Loftus in [! Student written essay.Click here for sample Essays on this topic and more Napoleonic period is often of! A small extent though it can be unreliable, under the rule of Bonaparte... Accounts, Edition 4 - Ebook written by our professional essay writing service is here to answer any you. 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With complete knowledge of all Answers Ltd, a essay on how the crucible handles and depicts characters... An effective method of questioning that the more accurate their recall traumatic factors are in! Subjects were shown films of automobile accidents victim is faced with an assailant who is brandishing a weapon regarding testimonies... The independent variable is the honesty of witnesses on trial, the application eyewitness... Testimony can do severe damage range of university lectures through to full dissertations, you also! Participants received a narrative of the wording used on the capability of the event any questions you have finished... During an event factor basis of eyewitness testimony should not be depended upon effect of adding post information! That different participants made sense of the essay should be taken into account 're rated 4.4/5 on reviews.co.uk restraining. Please refer to an authoritative source if you require up-to-date information on any health or medical.! The process of attention and rehearsal of memory store the key piece of evidence when a! Applicable to the loss of stimulus information as a vital piece of evidence such as forensic reach conclusion... Justice system i.e in English class, yesterday, we have a service matched!

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